Jackie Robinson Essays - Jackie Robinson, Branch Rickey,

Jackie Robinson Breaking the Color Barrier Jackie Robinson was an American competitor, business official, and social equality pioneer. Conceived in Cairo, Georgia, to a group of tenant farmers, Jack Roosevelt Robinson went to Pasadena Junior College in California and the University of California at Los Angeles. At UCLA he showed extraordinary athletic capacity and turned into the first UCLA understudy competitor to win varsity letters in four games; football, ball, baseball, and track. In 1941 Robinson left school to join the United States Army. In the wake of moving on from Officers Candidate School, Robinson turned into a second lieutenant in what was then an isolated armed force. Pained by the abuse of dark troopers in his unit, Robinson fought the U.S. Armed force's prejudicial practices. Military police at Fort Hood, Texas, captured Robinson when he denied the driver's organization to move to the rear of a transport. A court-military absolved Robinson and he got a noteworthy release in 1944 with the position of first lieutenant. Robinson started his expert baseball profession in 1945 with the Kansas City Monarchs, one of the main groups of the Negro Leagues. Soon thereafter, Robinson marked with Branch Rickey, the head supervisor of the Brooklyn Dodgers. Robinson spent the 1946 season playing for the Montreal Royals of the International League, a small time associate of the Dodgers. After one season with the Royals, Robinson was called up to the Brooklyn group in 1947, turning into the principal dark to play significant alliance baseball in the twentieth

Effects of Poverty on Children

Name: Shem Blake Course: Child-Adolescent Development Lecturer: Mrs. Kennedy Date: February 19, 2013 Discuss how destitution influences the psychosocial, intellectual, good and physical advancement of the immature The term neediness is generally used to just allude to an absence of cash, yet living in a condition of monetary unsteadiness is both genuinely and sincerely damaging.While a youthful who experiences childhood in a white collar class suburb is trained that the individual can set off for college, wed, have a compensating vocation, and make an important commitment to the world everywhere, a kid naturally introduced to destitution must battle to just make it to adulthood. The drawn out impacts of destitution are the reason this is a social issue that merits open consideration. Neediness is one of the most crushing preventable wonders neutralizing the solid advancement of a juvenile whom are at a critical stage in their development and development.During this formative procedur e they are experiencing, young people need an improving and invigorating condition to help their development however on the off chance that these teenagers are arranged in destitution stricken condition their development will be influenced in light of the fact that through destitution they are denied from necessities and needs which is fundamental in their turn of events and this changes their procedure of improvement as the impacts of destitution may wrap, curve or capture the procedure as the youths experience psychosocial, psychological, good and physical development.Therefore, its extensive impact can be wrecking to the advancement of young people. Destitution has a significant negative effect on adolescent’s psychosocial advancement. As per concentrates by V. C. McLoyd, â€Å"persistent introduction to destitution has a straightforwardly negative impact on a child’s health†. The more clear clarification for the thinking of this are way of life and day to da y environments for the individuals who live in destitution influence a youngster contrarily. Ecological hardship is normally what we consider when we think about destitution, yet it isn't the main factor.Stressors, for example, dangerous or hazardous day to day environments and savagery have an influence. Among these is hardship of other basic necessities that are required, for example, food, medication and a protected home. Hardship of any of these things, particularly in early stages or youth markedly affects psychosocial improvement. As McLoyd brings up, kids who live in neediness are presented to more outrageous day to day environments than the individuals who are not living under comparable circumstances.These conditions may affect them. During pre-adult there is an enormous level of mental development as kids make modifications as a part of their character because of the fast turn of events. They face progressing struggle and trouble adjusting to the abrupt upsurge of sexual a nd forceful drive. These progressions create distress and turmoil in the adolescents’ internal identities and the manner in which they see the world. During this development they build up their own convictions, values and what they need to achieve out of life.At this stage their additionally isolating genuinely from guardians while as yet being dependent on them yet as they need to battle with the difficulties of destitution, rather than having a solid psychosocial advancement they are at more serious danger of social and passionate problemsâ because they don't consider things the manner in which they ought to rather they get a debased brain particularly against people who are living in a superior condition from them making them not think normally.Some social issues may incorporate hastiness, trouble coexisting with peers, animosity, consideration deficiency/hyperactivity issue (ADHD) and lead issue since they are in a situation which puts a great deal of impediments on them . Additionally, in view of their poor status as a rule they are living in dangerous neighborhoods which opens youngsters to brutality which can cause various psychosocial troubles. Viciousness introduction can likewise anticipate future brutal conduct in youth which places them at more serious danger of injury and mortality and passage into the adolescent equity system.There are various types of destitution. At the point when a youngster has been naturally introduced to neediness, at that point destitution is viewed as an unavoidable truth which might possibly be something that can be changed. Difficult work for endurance is a desire forever. The â€Å"rules† that apply distinctively to individuals who live in neediness are seen yet adherence to the standards can be â€Å"conditional† when endurance or essential needs are not being met. Subsequently, at this stage, where they are progressing from concrete operational intuition to formal legitimate conceptual) thinking remembering improvement for thinking and judgment. So despite the fact that their reasoning gets multidimensional and they are smarter to ponder circumstances their dynamic stays vulnerable to feelings because of their social condition confines psychological incitement bringing about a lower inspiration to learn in light of the fact that the young people mind is in every case elsewhere, they have a limited capacity to focus on the grounds that their brain is continually contemplating food, and intellectual formative postponements as a result of poor nutrition.However, as indicated by the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the cerebrum of a youngster keeps on forming right into adulthood. The amygdala, the area of the cerebrum that controls impulses, grows first. The frontal cortex, which is answerable for thinking and decides how we act, grows later and keeps on forming into adulthood. Along these lines, a young person is guided less by the frontal cortex and might not have a full comprehension of good behavior.So while the advancement of the subjective abilities is being postponed as a result of poor nourishment, the improvement of the ethical aptitudes are all the more seriously deferred in light of the fact that they set aside a more drawn out effort to create on the grounds that the destitution stricken condition doesn't invigorates and advances the improvement of this development in light of the fact that their judgment are not principally on what’s right or wrong at the same time, what’s right or wrong for their endurance. In their condition they are presented to the enticements of medication, liquor and sex from an early point throughout everyday life but since this has been a standard in their childhood they tumble to the equivalent temptations.Everyone realizes that it is upsetting managing neediness, also, it is all the more alarming for young people since they are now experiencing difficulties of their own adjusting t o another psyche and body, in addition to managing their life circumstances may carry them to a limit. As a rule, their ethical advancement did not depend on what is correct or wrong however the set in stone methods of getting what they need or need, bringing about circumstances like posse brutality, high school prostitution and taking causing passings and even explicitly transmitted diseases.Their moral improvement is influenced in light of the fact that they despite everything think in a theoretical manner and can be more incautious than a grown-up. At this stage their lack of caution can keep them from settling on choices dependent on moral duty and they will accept no results will rise up out of their activities. Not exclusively does a poor nourishment and other social components influences the pre-adult in their psychsocial, good and intellectual turn of events yet its most obvious effect is on the physical improvement of the adolescent.Through this time they are experiencing a quick difference in the body however their advancement is eased back down in light of the fact that their body comes up short on the correct supplements that upgrade their development. They don't eat right and are uninformed to the idea of carrying on with a sound way of life so in their turn of events, on the off chance that they are not underweight; they are overweight in light of the fact that their eating routine comprises of a great deal of starch, a modest quantity of protein and a deficiency in different supplements. Soobader and Leclere (2000) has additionally inspected the effect of neediness on the physical wellbeing status of the adolescents.According to these creators, destitution can affect the capacity of the family to get and keep up medical coverage. This particular issue can affect the general strength of the puberty since medicinal services is costly and if the pre-adult is become sick, in the event that the affliction isn't viewed as genuine, at that point they s hould remain at home and utilize home cures possibly heading off to the specialist on the off chance that it gets life threating and this is an intense issue in light of the fact that the infirmity could as of now be causing inside damage.In low-salary families, procuring appropriate clinical consideration stays an unavoidable issue that has away from for the wellbeing results of the kid. In spite of the fact that Soobader and Leclere do contend that the issues confronting immaturity is very unpredictable by and large, the powerlessness to get to legitimate medicinal services and protection notably affects the results for pre-adulthood living in neediness. â€Å"The likelihood of a youngster being uninsured was related with more significant levels of pay imbalance at the province level and more elevated levels of neediness at the area level.Therefore, the falling apart physical condition and the absence of social administrations mixes individual disadvantage† (p. 230). At the point when destitution is a deep rooted recommendation for teenagers, it doesn't imply that a youth will form into a lesser type of a person when they arrive at adulthood. Truth be told, respect, values, convictions, network structure can deliver well structure people under conditions the vast majority of us would think about awful. In any case, the absence of food, clinical consideration, and other terrible social conditions may cause deep rooted psychosocial, subjective, good and physical debilitations for the adolescents.Without a strong network or family structure, the general absence of essential resource will cause preventable and indefensible passings that can give a juvenile a distorted perspective on the estimation of life. Referencing Books. Mueller, M. , and Patton, M. (1995). Working with poor families, exercises gained from training. Marriage andFamily Review, 21 (1/2), 65-90. Community for Adolescent Health and Law (1999, December). Adolesce

How to Write Senior Citizen Essay Samples

How to Write Senior Citizen Essay SamplesAn Otago junior volunteer program is a fun way to let your mind is blown and experience new things, but there are some things that you need to consider before you begin. What might be one of the most important parts is deciding which volunteers will be in your group and what to write about them. There are several San Anotonia Regional Hospital Junior Volunteer Essay samples to choose from but only one of them will be perfect for your need.If you're looking for assistance in your Junior Volunteer Program, you will need to make sure you choose essay samples that accurately represent the Volunteer Center. The program requires that each volunteer has a compelling story. They are not writing an essay, so your intent should be more on telling how you feel rather than to be funny.Most people aren't looking to be humorous when they're writing senior citizen essays. You want to provide an introduction that makes it clear that this is not an assignment but a part of the program. In the introduction, explain why you're here and what you hope to gain by being part of this program. Make it memorable and highly descriptive and you will find that your students will be motivated to learn more.One of the best San Anotonia Regional Hospital Junior Volunteer Essay samples is one written by Richle. He provides an introduction that offers an interesting and professional introduction. The conclusion is a very powerful summary of the theme of the essay and then ends with his appreciation for the volunteer program. This would be an ideal senior citizen essay sample for someone who wants to include personal experience with volunteering in the introduction.Another example is written by Sheila. She opens with an introduction that describes her reasons for being a volunteer. She then proceeds to tell what she hopes to gain by becoming a volunteer. The conclusion is a much needed apology for her participation in the program.Another essay that meets the expectations of the San Anotonia volunteer program is written by Hayden. This includes an introduction that details her skills as a writer. She also explains what this specific program means to her and how she hopes to gain more experience through this program. Next, she tells what she hopes to gain through the program by completing the next assignment and writing an overview of her experience. Finally, she describes how it made her feel.Tim Cotter is another excellent essay example for the Junior Volunteer Program. He provides an introduction that provides an informative introduction to this volunteer program. He describes how his background makes him qualified to write this particular essay.His conclusion explains how he expects his senior citizen essay to do a good job of explaining the significance of volunteering for him. He also mentions that you can find more examples of this type of writing on his website. It is offered as a free download as well.

Comparing Love in Go Tell It on the Mountain, Giovannis...

Baldwin’s first three novels -Go Tell It on the Mountain, Giovannis Room, and Another Country-boil over with anger, prejudice, and hatred, yet the primary force his characters must contend with is love. Not meek or mawkish but ...something active, more like fire, like the wind (qtd. in ONeale 126), Baldwins notion of love can conquer the horrors of society and pave the way to emotional security (Kinnamon 5). His recipe calls for a determined identity, a confrontation with and acceptance of reality, and finally, an open, committed relationship. Though Baldwins characters desperately need love, they fail to meet these individual requirements, and the seeds of love they sow never take root and grow to fruition.†¦show more content†¦Baldwin points to his high-school writing as an act of love. It was an attempt-not to get the worlds attention-it was an attempt to be loved. It seemed a way to save myself and a way to save my family. It came out of despair (qtd. in Kin namon 3). Baldwin believes in the redemptive power of love, the power to save. But first must come despair. All of Baldwins characters suffer tremendously, for they live in modern society. Few love. Since suffering is universal but a love fulfilled is not, suffering alone does not allow one to love, ...but if dealt with courageously...can lead to self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and the forging of a genuine self-identity (Nelson 122). With no internal conflicts, one can open up to another person, and love can flower. This process, however, is rarely completed. In Another Country a vivid portrait of the universal need for love is suggested by Rufuss interpretation of a saxophonists improvisation. Rufus plays in a jazz combo with a young saxophonist who already ...had received the blow from which he never would recover (9): ...[S]omewhere along the line he had discovered that he could say it with a saxophone. He had a lot to say. He stood there, wide-legged, humping the air, filling his barrel chest, shivering in the rags of his twenty-odd years, and screaming through the horn Do you love me? Do you

Age Related Changes in the Cardiovascular System - 843 Words

Case Study # 2: Age-Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System Sarah Miller ITT Technical Institute As the heart ages it goes through changes such as thickening of the walls, slowing heart rate, decrease in maximum heart rate, loss of efficiency in pumping. The layers of the heart include the pericardium, epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. The pericardium is the membrane that protects; it is a sac that the heart sits in and has a layer of fluid between for shock and absorption. The epicardium is the first layer of the heart. The myocardium is the second layer of the heart where the walls are not in contact with blood and are also the parts that contract. The endocardium is where the blood makes direct contact†¦show more content†¦Medications can help treat congestive heart failure and can help a person live longer. Lifestyle changes are important to improving the quality of life. Heart failure can be prevented by controlling risk factors and condition that cause heart failure. Myocardial infarction is commonly known as a heart attack. It occurs when blood flo w to the heart is blocked for so long that part of the heart muscle is damaged or dies. The greatest risk of sudden death is in the early hours. Chest pain in the most common symptom along with a shooting pain in the left arm, anxiety, fainting, dizziness, and nausea. References Jenkins, G., Kemnitz C.,Tortora G. Anatomy and Physiology: From Science to Life. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley amp; Sons, 2010. 619. Print. Celli, B. (2009, October 23). Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Pressure. Retrieved January 23, 2013, from http://www.ehow.com/about_5565094_homeostatic-regulation-blood-pressure.html Your Aging Heart: What’s Happening?. (n.d.). Retrieved January 24, 2013 from http://www.thirdage.com/heart-health/your-aging-heart-whats-happening Coronary Artery Disease: MedlinePlus. (n.d.). Retrieved January 23, 2013 from www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/coronaryarterydisease.html Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (2011, December 23). Retrieved January 24, 2013 from www.mayoclinic.com/health/heart-failure/DS00061 Heart Attack. (2001, January 18). Retrieved January 24, 2013 from U.S. National Library ofShow MoreRelatedAge Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System950 Words   |  4 PagesAge Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System In the normal conduction of the heart the electrical impulse starts in the SA node, also called the pacemaker of the heart. The electrical impulse travels through the right atrium and through the Bachmann’s bundle into the left atrium. This stimulates the atria to contract. Next the signal travel to the AV node. The AV node slightly delays the signal. 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Bad Boys and Why They Are Not Naughty by Nature but by Culture Free Essays

Samantha Latting Charise Albritton Sociology 3255 4 April 2013 Bad Boys And Why They Are Not Naughty By Nature But By Culture â€Å"Don’t Believe the Hype. † I believe the title of the very first chapter perfectly introduces and summarizes Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. These young boys are adultified and are tied to these two controlling images of the criminal and the endangered species. We will write a custom essay sample on Bad Boys and Why They Are Not Naughty by Nature but by Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now The way these young boys are treated in school is a parallel to how they will be treated in juvenile detentions centers and in a lot of cases the penal system when they reach adulthood. Due to the adultification and controlling images black male youth develop different coping mechanisms to deal with these negative assumptions they know are made about them. This includes they way they act out in their classrooms. The way in which these young boys are behaving is not because they are â€Å"naughty by nature,† it is an act, or a defense mechanism that is brought upon by how they are treated by educators and other authority figures. [Black boys] are not seen as childlike but adultified; as black males, they are denied the masculine dispensation constituting white males as being ‘naturally naughty’ and are discerned as willfully bad (80). † School is supposed to be a place where children learn, develop and grow. However, when a child is adultified this cannot really occur. This means that adults they interact with believe that their future is pre-determined. A common phrase used without the book is â€Å"that kid has a jail cell with his name o n it. When educators have this kind of mentality where they believe they are not going to be able to change this student they do not attempt to—in their head they are as developed, as they will ever be, just as an adult would be. The two controlling images that are tied to adultification are the criminal and the endangered species (83). Criminalization was touched on a bit when the bit about teachers believing the child would end up in jail was mentioned. Young black males and their actions and transgressions â€Å"are made to take on a sinister, intentional, fully conscious tone that is stripped of any element of childish naivete (83). The second controlling image, the endangered species, is a mirror image of the criminal. By calling the young black male an endangered species we’re saying they are in an obsolete stage of social evolution. When looking at the boys in either light, as a criminal or as an endangered species â€Å"contemporary imagery proclaims black ma les to be responsible for their own fate. The discourse of individual choice and responsibility elides the social and economic context and locates predation as coming from within (82). This means that although it may be said that the black male is in control of his own actions the discourses in which we view them actually says the opposite; that people believe that they are, once again, naughty by nature. Black male youth have too frequent relationships with the penal system, which could be, in part, because of this naughty by nature belief. Due to profiling and stereotyping their chances of entering the juvenile detention system is high and there is an even higher chance of being jailed as an adult (233). We see the criminality and demonization of black male youth that was present in their school experiences in the penal system as well. This process is repeated through â€Å"surveillance, policing, charges, and penalties (233). † Black male youth perform masculinity using three strategies. These strategies are gendered acts, classroom performance, and fighting. Gendered acts means the boys act as aggressors and treat the females as victims. These strategies often get the boys in trouble, however it is a way for him to make a place for himself as a ‘real boy. These gendered acts are not just imitation; they are a â€Å"highly strategic attachment to a social category that has political effects (171). † Performance in the classroom is also a tactic used to perform masculinity. It is â€Å"fundamental to the masculine performance is engagement with power. † In the book there are several instances of black male youth causing classroom disruptions. This could inc lude laughing, constantly talking, interrupting, being loud, being sassy, demanding other’s attention, etc. The kids see most of these acts as humorous and times of self-expression (175). Some kids are stars at these performances. The performances are rituals that involve their own script, roles, and timing. â€Å"These dramatic moments are sites for the presentations of a potent masculine presence in the classroom (176). † The ‘good bad boy’ engages power, makes the class laugh, takes risks and makes the teacher smile (176). The final tactic used to perform masculinity is fighting. In the book, fighting is the most common offense in which students are sent to the Punishing Room and the vast majority of the offenders are African American males (180). Students are told that fighting is not the answer; if someone tries to start a fight with you then you should tell a teacher and allow them to intervene. However, this goes against the code of masculinity. Letting an adult intervene is a sign of weakness. Another reason children don’t want teachers to intervene is because they don’t believe an adult can really change the relationship between kids. The only thing she can really do is instruct them to stop (180). Black male youth develop coping mechanisms in response to the reception they receive in public. Included in these mechanisms are â€Å"processes of identification, the formation of self at the conjecture of how one is seen an how one sees oneself. (125). † On one level the boys brush off the fear and surveillance as flattering and a sign of their ability to attract attention and be noticed (125). This can be a temporarily rewarding reaction. However, on another level â€Å"identities are constituted in relationship to the perceptions and expectations of other people (125). † The act the boys are putting on becomes a reality—they reinforce the idea of this stereotype of behavior. We can look at Horace to personify these examples. Horace is prepared to fight both physically and verbally. He has learned that in public he needs to challenge authority. His fighting has earned him respect and authority among his peers. This is easily tied in to how classroom performance plays a role in masculinity, which was briefly touched upon before. For African American boys this performance in the classroom of being a ‘class clown’ or causing other disruptions â€Å"invokes cultural conventions of speech performance that draws on a black repertoire (178). This performance in the classroom is a way for African American boys to establish their desired reputation and to make a name for themselves, as well as achieve status at school. Don’t simply believe the hype and stereotypes surrounding black male youth. They are not â€Å"naughty by nature,† but by the culture in which they live and learn in. These boys are adultified and seen as a criminals and/ or an endangered species. Many times this ‘bad’ behavior is simply an act to achieve masculinity and status among peers and over time becomes reality. This is one of the coping mechanisms that these boys develop to deal with the way they are treated and perceived by the adults in their lives. They way these authority figures at school treat them is very similar to how they will be treated in juvenile detentions centers (which they are likely to encounter) and by people in the penal system in which they very well may be subjected to as adults. The behavior of these young boys is due to a cause and effect relationship between how they are treated by their educators and other adults in positions of authority. How to cite Bad Boys and Why They Are Not Naughty by Nature but by Culture, Papers

Nature VS Nurture †Are Criminals Born or Made free essay sample

By submitting this work, I am declaring that I am the originator of this work and that all other original sources used in this work have been appropriately acknowledged. I understand that plagiarism is the act of taking and using the whole or any part of another person’s work and presenting it as my own without proper acknowledgement. I also understand that plagiarism is an academic offence and that disciplinary action will be taken for plagiarism. Intro The search for causes of crime forms the basis of most criminological studies. There are numerous explanations for crime: psychological, evolutionary, genetical, sociological, economical and a mix of factors; and many have debated over the primary influence of criminal behaviour—whether criminals are born or made. Truth is, in the constitution of criminal behaviour, it is the amalgam of both nature and nurture. And this paper will present how crime behaviours can be hereditary but are influenced by the society. We will write a custom essay sample on Nature VS Nurture – Are Criminals Born or Made? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Nature The first theory that will demonstrate that criminals are made is Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of crime (1961), which posits that all humans have natural basic biological needs and urges such as hunger and sex repressed in the unconscious called Id which is irrationally expressed to derive satisfaction. More importantly he also claims that all humans have criminal tendencies. Typically, we can curb these urges and tendencies and express them appropriately according to social norms through socialisation (Eysenck, 1996); where we learn to develop conscious inner controls called SuperEgo—which is our moral conscience repressing the Id and Ego— which mediates the expression of Id. However, when faced with the lack of basic need, the unconscious Id is stimulated, and the improperly socialised child who has failed to acquire and develop the Ego and SuperEgo, will then direct antisocial impulses outwardly as harmful criminalistic tendencies (Freud, 1923). Besides Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, the Evolutionary theory also serves to explain for the nature of a criminal. Aggression in the animal kingdom helps animals to obtain food, compete for access to a mate, and protect territory. These forms of aggressive behaviours have been favoured by a process called natural selection because they facilitate the reproduction of genes in the aggressive animals, either directly or indirectly, by aiding survival so that an animal or its close kin can reproduce later (Quinsey, 2002). According to Darwin’s evolutionary theory, we evolved from animals and aggressive tendencies humans have are considered adaptive (Darwin, 1859). In this sense extreme violence may be synonymous with melanism in the English pepper moth (Steward, 1977). Melanism, an extreme colouring variation was rare before the darkening of England’s trees by domestic soot pollution as it contrasts against the tree bark and alerts predators to prey on them but shot up during which as it became adaptive. Once the pollution was cleaned, the frequencies of melanism reversed yet again. Similarly, although extreme violence is not currently adaptive, relatively small numbers of humans may be born with gene variations leading to inefficient aggression restraint that place them at high risk for extreme violent behaviours. Last but not least, there were researchers who believed that genes were fully responsible for criminal activity. There have been numerous studies carried out on twins to determine whether genetic influences play a part in criminal behaviour. Christiansen (1977) reported on the criminality of a total population of 3,586 twin pairs from Denmark. He found that 52% of the twins were concordant for criminal behaviour for identical twin pairs, whilst 22% of the twins were concordant for fraternal twin pairs. These results suggest that identical twins carry some form of biological characteristic that increases their risk of becoming involved in criminal behaviour (McLaughlin, Muncie, Hughes, 2003). Adoption studies have also been conducted to test for the criminal behaviours of the adopted-away children, if their biological parents had also been involved with criminal activity. In Iowa, the first adoption study was conducted that looked at the genetics of criminal behaviour. The researchers found that as compared to the control group, the adopted individuals, which were born to incarcerated female offenders, had a higher rate of criminal convictions as adults. Another study in Sweden also showed that if a biological background existed for criminality, then there was an increased risk of criminal behaviours in the adopted children. These evidences support the existence of a heritable component to antisocial or criminal behavior (Tehrani Mednick, 2000). However, while the overstimulation of the Id and the failure to acquire and develop the the Ego and SuperEgo leads to criminal tendencies, while aggression may be out of adaptive values, and while genetic studies have pointed towards the influence of genes and criminal behaviour, these theories alone are insufficient to account for crime. Evolutionary theory does not explain or predict for the extreme degrees of aggression in individuals nor has the genetic theory proven for 100% heritability; which raises the need for us to examine the Nurture camp of crime theories as well. Nurture Behavioural psychology posits that a persons behaviour is learned and maintained by its consequences, or reward value (Bandura, 1973). Eysenck (1964) postulated that by way of classical conditioning—the learning process that occurs as a result of pairing a reliable stimulus with a response, operant conditioning— learning that occurs due to the manipulation of the possible consequences, and modelling of others’ behaviours through familial interactions, environmental experiences and the mass media, people learn moral preferences. Based on behavioural psychology, Sutherland (1939), a prominent social learning theorist, then put forth the theory of Differential Association where criminal behaviours are learned through interaction with intimate personal groups in a process of communication. When criminal behaviours are learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable and a person becomes delinquent when there is an excess of definitions favourable to violation of law over definitions unfavourable to violation of the law. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. Another sociological theory in the Nurture camp of thought is the Social Reaction Theory. It could be said that a person’s environment depends to a certain extent on their own choice (Horwitz, Christiansen, 1983). However, there are also some individuals within certain areas who are drawn into crime (McGuire, Mason, O’Kane, 2000). A case in which the latter apply is institutional upbringing. Be it by choice or not, when society brands a certain social group as social deviants, delinquency rates tend to be on the rise for them. This is because once a person is stigmatised by a label, the response is often to accept and fulfil the label given and commit further acts of deviance. For example, when a child is disruptive during lessons, teachers may label a child as a troublemaker and suggest that he only have classes with other troubled students. This leads him to seek out other outcasts and reinforce his identity. Parents may accept this and further reinforce this stereotype. As such, stigmatism takes places and social deviance is not only accepted by the potential offender but also perpetrated by society’s reactions (Siegel Welsh, 2008). Another theory explaining for the causation of crime is the General Strain Theory. Strain theorists believe that crime is a function of the conflict between people’s goals and the means they can use to obtain them. Although social and economic goals are common to people in all economic strata, the ability to obtain these goals is class dependent, thus crime is narrowed down as a direct result of frustration among the lower socioeconomic classes (O Grady, 2007). However, this does not explain for the consistent criminal rate in the community despite attempts to increase aspirations and standards of living. As such, Agnew (1992) proposed the General Strain Theory where multiple sources of strain such as the failure to achieve goals, disjunction of expectations and achievements removal of positive stimuli such as the loss of a loved one and presentation of negative stimuli such as punishment or bully, interact with an individual’s emotional traits and responses to produce criminality in attempt to reduce strain. And perhaps one of the more interesting social perspective of crime causation is centering the social construction of crime. Mcguire (2000) points out, there are no acts that can be called crime—crime is not a distinct type of behaviour. What is criminal in one country may not be criminal in another country; the purchasing of marijuana is legal in Amsterdam whilst illegal in many other countries. Also, what is a crime at one time may not be a crime at another time, just like how stalkers could not be prosecuted until stalking was made an offence in some jurisdictions. While social constructionism as an explanation for crime may be weak without knowing by whom it was constructed and for what ends it served, elite social constructionism however, wields great power and the knowledge produced, disseminated and advocated by social groups of some status affects the law and the convicted. For example, during the early twentieth century, the medical profession is highly esteemed and under their influence, the knowledge of the effects of drugs and its misuse became a key guide in the formation of laws to do with substance abuse. In light that the very definition of crime is socially constructed and not up to the perpetrators at all, there is a very real sense in which criminals are made. And just as how stating that criminals are born without choice is difficult to accept, positing that criminals are made does not explain for why people who live in a shared or similar environment does not act out criminal behaviours. Given that both camps lack in the ability to fully account for criminal behaviour, researchers have then formulated theories of the interplay of nature and nurture to explain crime causation. Interplay of Nature and Nurture The first of such theory is the Rational Choice Theory which posits that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender examines his options, consequences and benefits. When the benefits of the crime is attractive and is a sufficient motivator, the offender then plans the crime by consciously picking the type of crime, location of the crime and target of the crime, and executes the crime with awareness that it is wrong and control to choose otherwise. To the potential offender, there are two types of crimes: offender-specific where the offender evaluates their resources, skills, motives, needs and fears and commits a crime when they can and offense-specific where offenders react selectively to characteristics of a particular criminal act such as the methodology and opportunity to escape. These push and pull factors of a crime and the offender is what makes a criminal—it is not just a personal innate choice but also dependent on the conceptualisation of an opportunity presented by the environment (Beccaria, 1963). Following which, there is the Contemporary Trait Theory. Contemporary trait theorists today recognise that no single biological or psychological attribute is thought to adequately explain all criminality. Rather, each offender is considered unique, physically and mentally; consequently, there must be different explanations for each person’s behaviours. Some may have inherited criminal tendencies, others may be suffering from nervous system (neurological) problems, and still others may have a blood chemistry disorder that heightens their antisocial activity. Criminologists who focus on the individual see many explanations for crime, because, in fact, there are many differences among criminal offenders. Ultimately, Contemporary Trait Theory postulates that crime-producing interactions involve both personal traits—such as intelligence, personality, and chemical and genetic makeup—and environmental factors, such as family life, educational attainment, economic factors and neighbourhood conditions. Physical or mental traits are, therefore, but one part of a large pool of environmental, social, and personal factors that account for criminality. Some people may have a predisposition toward aggression, but environmental stimuli can either suppress or trigger antisocial acts (Siegel, 2011). And last but not least, a theory that demonstrates the interplay of Nature and Nurture factors is Eysenck’s Biosocial Theory of Crime (Eysenck, 1996). Eysenck believes that genetic factors contribute enormously to human behaviour but they have their effects under the influence of environmental or social factors (Howitt, 2011). Under the genetic and biological branch, he created a personality model based on three factors known as psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism (PEN) that could be used as predictors of criminal behaviour; these factors and the personality traits associated with them are found to be heritable (Miles Carey, 1997). Research has shown that just like PEN, criminality is strongly correlated with low arousal levels in the brain leading to their active seeking out of stimulation to increase their arousal—proper stimulation includes high-risk activities associated with antisocial behaviours, which consists of sexual promiscuity, substance abuse, and crime. However, not all with higher levels of PEN or lower brain arousal levels act out their need for stimulation; Eysenck’s argument is that only when there is a failure of socialisation through rewards and punishment, that these genetic factors are expressed. Conclusion This essay has only just begun to skim over the causes of criminal behaviour. As it can be seen it would be difficult to credit one theory for the explanation of crime, but what we do know and can confirm, is that there is a continual interaction between both genetic an environmental factors; they are functionally interdependent. No one study carried out can be said to provide conclusive evidence for either genetic factors or environmental factors (Horwitz, Christiansen, 1983). Thus my position as to whether criminals are born or made, is that criminal tendencies may be innate and inherited, but the determination of crime in itself is social and so are the influences guarding the choice to express these tendencies, hence it is only right to say that criminals are both born and made. And if we were to really examine the specifics, in fact, I would posit that the environmental factors take a higher weightage in crime causation, simply due to the fact that crime in itself is socially constructed.